India, the world’s largest democracy, is experiencing an alarming erosion of press freedom under Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s administration. Since Modi assumed office in 2014, the country has witnessed a significant rise in the prosecution, harassment, and even killing of journalists. Despite its constitutional guarantees for freedom of speech and expression, India has become an increasingly hostile environment for journalists, particularly those who criticize the government or its Hindu nationalist policies.
In the 2025 World Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders (RSF), India ranked 159th out of 180 countries, slightly better than its 161st position in 2023. However, this improvement is largely attributed to deteriorating conditions in other nations rather than actual progress in India. More strikingly, India now lags behind its neighbor Pakistan, which stands at 152nd. Meanwhile, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden continue to lead the global ranking as the most press-friendly countries.
Press Freedom Under Siege: Key Concerns and Legislative Control
RSF warns of an “unofficial state of emergency” gripping India’s media landscape. The introduction of laws such as the 2023 Telecommunications Act and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act has raised serious alarms among press freedom advocates. These laws provide the Indian government with sweeping powers to monitor, censor, and control digital communication under the guise of national security and data protection.
The laws grant the state authority to suspend telecom services, restrict access to online platforms, and demand user data from service providers. This centralization of power essentially undermines the autonomy of media houses and silences dissent under the pretext of maintaining public order.
As of early 2025, nine journalists and one media worker remain behind bars. While there have been no reported journalist killings since January 2024, this does not suggest a safer environment. Rather, the focus has shifted to legal persecution, online harassment, arbitrary detentions, and economic pressure.
Widening Crackdown in Kashmir and Beyond
Nowhere is the climate of repression more intense than in Jammu and Kashmir, a region where press freedom has been consistently under siege since the revocation of its special status in 2019. Journalists there face routine harassment from police and paramilitary forces, with many spending extended periods in detention without formal charges. The lack of transparency and judicial delay in these cases exacerbates the already precarious situation.
Across the country, critical journalists are subjected to targeted online abuse, threats to their safety, and surveillance, creating an atmosphere where self-censorship becomes a survival strategy rather than a choice.
Media Consolidation and Economic Control
Another significant concern highlighted by RSF is the consolidation of media ownership, most notably by Mukesh Ambani’s Reliance Industries. Ambani’s media empire spans over 70 outlets, reaching 800 million people, making it the largest in India. These media outlets have reportedly adopted a pro-government editorial stance, aligning closely with the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
The acquisition of NDTV by Gautam Adani, a known Modi ally, is another example. The network, once known for its critical reporting, has since seen a shift in editorial policy, which critics argue undermines its independence. Popular journalist Ravish Kumar, known for his fearless journalism, resigned from NDTV following this takeover, citing loss of editorial freedom.
In another incident, The Wire, an independent platform known for investigative journalism, was blocked without formal explanation after it published a report about a Rafale fighter jet incident involving Pakistan. Though the article was based on a CNN report, only The Wire faced retaliation. This selective censorship raises questions about the real intent behind such actions: is it national security or simply silencing opposition?
Legal Tools of Suppression: UAPA and Sedition
The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) has become a primary tool for suppressing journalists. Designed as an anti-terror law, UAPA allows authorities to detain individuals without trial for up to 180 days, often based on flimsy or undisclosed evidence. According to the International Journalists’ Network (IJN), at least 15 journalists have been charged under UAPA since 2014, with 36 journalists detained overall during this period.
Additionally, Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code (sedition law), and laws pertaining to promoting enmity between groups, are commonly invoked to target journalists. While the Supreme Court has questioned the continued validity of sedition laws, no substantial reforms have yet been enacted, leaving journalists vulnerable.
High-Profile Cases of Persecution
Several prominent cases illustrate the widening assault on press freedom:
- Siddique Kappan (2020–2023): Detained under UAPA while reporting on the Hathras gang rape case. He spent 28 months in jail without trial.
- Prabir Purkayastha and Amit Chakravarty (2023): Arrested under UAPA during raids on NewsClick, accused of receiving Chinese funds—charges that remain unproven.
- Gauri Lankesh (2017): A vocal critic of Hindu nationalism, she was assassinated outside her home, with investigations linking her killers to right-wing extremists.
- Rana Ayyub (2018–Present): Faced harassment, death threats, and online trolling after publishing Gujarat Files. UN called for protection, but no concrete action was taken.
- Neha Dixit (2016): Faced charges and harassment for reporting on child trafficking linked to RSS-affiliated groups.
- Fahad Shah (2022): Arrested under UAPA for reporting critically on Kashmir. Editor of The Kashmir Walla.
- Aasif Sultan (2018): Detained for alleged ties to militants, remains incarcerated without trial.
- Sandeep Sharma and Subhash Mahto (2018 & 2022): Killed for exposing the sand mafia in their respective states.
- Aatish Taseer (2019): Lost his Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) after writing a critical article in Time magazine.
These cases, often involving lengthy detentions, lack of trials, and vague allegations, underscore how the legal system is being used not for justice, but for intimidation and control.
The Cost of Speaking Out: Foreign Correspondents Also Targeted
Even foreign journalists have not been spared. In 2024, Avani Dias of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Vanessa Dougnac, a French correspondent, were denied visa extensions, effectively forcing them to leave India. This trend indicates an attempt to curate international narratives, limiting foreign scrutiny of India’s internal affairs.
Economic Leverage and Self-Censorship
Beyond legal and physical threats, the government also wields economic control. Government advertising forms a major source of revenue for many mainstream media houses. By selectively awarding or withholding ad contracts, the state indirectly influences editorial policy. This has led to self-censorship, especially among large media networks. Independent journalists, freelance reporters, and small regional outlets—lacking financial or legal support—are especially vulnerable.
Pseudonymous journalists, like Harleen Kapoor, describe working under constant fear, navigating a landscape where every tweet or report could result in retaliation, lawsuits, or worse.
Implications for Democracy
A free press is the cornerstone of any democracy. It holds power to account, informs the public, and provides a platform for diverse opinions. The current trajectory in India threatens to dismantle this foundation. The targeting of journalists not only curtails individual freedoms but also sends a chilling message to society: questioning authority comes at a high cost.
India’s 13th place on CPJ’s Global Impunity Index, and the absence of convictions in journalist killings, further illustrate a culture of impunity. Combined with increasing surveillance, digital censorship, and media monopolization, the situation poses a grave threat to pluralism and democratic discourse.
Conclusion: A Call for Urgent Reform
The press in India is under siege, and the data is stark: at least 15 UAPA charges, 36 journalist detentions, and 28 murders since 2014. The Modi government’s tenure has coincided with a dramatic decline in India’s global press freedom rankings, and a narrowing space for free expression.
The international community, human rights organizations, and Indian civil society must push for urgent reforms. This includes repealing or amending draconian laws like UAPA and sedition, ensuring judicial accountability, protecting foreign and domestic journalists, and preserving the autonomy of media outlets.
The question now is not just about press freedom, but about the very soul of Indian democracy. Without a free and fearless press, accountability vanishes, corruption festers, and citizens remain in the dark. India must reclaim its democratic promise—beginning with the protection and empowerment of its journalists.